context matters（英语大师来,在线等,急急急）

本文目录

• 英语大师来,在线等,急急急
• 请分析下成分，谢谢！！！
• 求关于打火机的英文定单
• 请问在下面这句话中High and low context应该怎么翻译
• multiculturalism，名词解释英语考试要用的，急！大概三十到四十个字！英文
• 全国100所名校单元测试示范卷英语卷四
• what’s the matter与what’s the matter with you的区别
• 谁能帮我翻译下这段论文急~~
• 高分找英文高手和中国历史双重牛人

英语大师来,在线等,急急急

At a time when talk of a “clash of civilizations“ looks increasingly like a self-fulfilling prophecy, when bin Laden-ites seek to reshape the world in the image of universal Islam, when our own leaders blithely hive off the good from the evil, us from them, Anthony Appiah issues a call for a more helpful posture toward a world of stubborn difference, an approach he calls, reaching back to the 4th Century Greece, “cosmopolitanism.“
The cosmopolitan ethic starts from the thought that human knowledge is fallible—that no culture or individual has a lock on truth—and upholds “conversation,“ broadly defined as the respectful and candid exchange of views among individuals and cultures—as a good in its own right; agreement is not its ultimate goal. It understands individuals in the context of their cultures but tends, where the two clash, to give primacy to the former. What cosmopolitanism does not permit, however, is a kind of flaccid relativism; it insists that there are some universals—basic human rights, for instance—which are non-negotiable. Otherwise, it says, difference and disagreement are so much grist for mutually enriching dialogue.
I don’t think that cosmopolitanism has to be either elitist or unpatriotic; I think it’s perfectly possible to combine a sense of real responsibility for other human beings as human beings with a deeper sense of commitment to a political community. As far as I’m concerned, the key things in cosmopolitanism are, first, that global concern--the acceptance that we’re all responsible for the human community, which is the fundamental idea of morality. What’s distinctive about the cosmopolitan attitude is that it comes with a recognition that encounters with other people aren’t about making them like us. Cosmopolitans accept and indeed like the fact that people live in different ways; that free human beings will choose to live in different ways and will choose to express themselves in different ways. And that openness to difference comes, I think, from a kind of toleration combined with a recognition of human fallibility. One of the reasons why we’re glad there are people out there who aren’t like us is that we’re pretty certain that there are a lot of things we’re wrong about.
There are two strands to cosmpolitanism, and both are essential. The first is universalist: it says everybody matters. But they matter in their specificity, as who they are, not who you want them to be. The problem is that there are people going around who want to reshape the world, want to reshape everybody else, in their own image. That’s dangerous. Some of them are more violent than others; some aren’t violent at all. But none of them are cosmopolitan, and in that sense I’m against them.
The world is full of people consuming things we know nothing about here. And anyway, even if they were (God forbid) force-fed a diet of American television they’d interpret it in their own context. They literally wouldn’t see what you see. There are famous studies—I mention two of them in my book—that show this. People tend to borrow the things they find useful and ignore the rest. They interpret and respond; they’re not a wax on which you’re imprinting an image. People even interpret plot in their own cultural context. There are these famous studies of the reception of the American television series Dallas in Israel and Palestine. They talk about a moment when a female character leaves her home and goes to stay with an older man. They saw her going back to her father. In fact he’s her boyfriend, but in that world that would never be. They saw her doing what they would do in like circumstances. When you send a television series to Ghana or Mexico or South Africa you don’t send a guy with it to interpret it; people interpret it for themselves.
这篇文章比较有深度，如果你是大学以下，建议还是根据自己实力来选择删减，但是很适合做演讲稿！~

请分析下成分，谢谢！！！

arguably 状语
the 冠词 ，限定作用
only 定语
diversity 被修饰词
that really matters 定语从句 ，matters 是动词= is important
in a business context,插入语

求关于打火机的英文定单

DATED 200日
- by and between - 由
（买方名称）
BUYER 买方
- and - - 与 -
（卖方名称）
SELLER 卖方
签订
TABLE OF CONTENTS 目录
PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 1
1. DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATION 1 1. 定义和解释 1
2. SCOPE OF CONTRACT 1 2. 合同范围 1
3. CONTRACT PRICE 2 3. 合同总价 1
4. PAYMENT 2 4. 支付 2
5. DELIVERY 4 5. 交货 3
6. PACKING AND SHIPPING MARKS 5 6. 包装和唛头 4
7. INSPECTION AND CLAIM 6 7. 检验和索赔 5
8. INSTALLATION, COMMISSIONING AND ACCEPTANCE OF THE EQUIPMENT 7 8. 设备安装、调试和验收 6
9. WARRANTY 9 9. 保证 7
10. SOFTWARE LICENSE 10 10. 软件许可 8
11. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY INDEMNITY 12 11. 知识产权赔偿 9
12. TAXES 13 12. 税收 10
13. REPRESENTATIONS AND WARRANTIES 13 13. 陈述及保证 10
14. TERM 14 14. 合同期限 11
15. TERMINATION 14 15. 合同终止 11
16. CONFIDENTIALITY 15 16. 保密义务 12
17. BREACH OF CONTRACT 16 17. 违约 12
18. FORCE MAJEURE 16 18. 不可抗力 13
19. SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES 17 19. 争议的解决 13
20. MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS 20 20. 其他规定 16
SCHEDULE A – DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATION 25 附录一 - 定义和解释 19
SCHEDULE B - SPECIAL TERMS 29 附录二 - 特别条款 22
ANNEX 1 - EQUIPMENT, SERVICES & DOCUMENTATION LIST AND PRICES 31 附件一 合同设备、合同服务及相关文件清单与价格 24
ANNEX 2 - SPECIFICATIONS 32 附件二 合同技术规范 25
ANNEX 3 - PROJECT SCHEDULE 33 附件三 项目进度表 26
ANNEX 4 - ENGINEERING NOTES AND INSTALLATION RESPONSIBILITIES 34 附件四 工程说明及安装责任范围 27
ANNEX 5 - EQUIPMENT ACCEPTANCE TEST PLAN 35 附件五 设备验收测试方案 28
ANNEX 6 - SPECIMEN OF ACCEPTANCE CERTIFICATE 36 附件六 验收合格证书样本 29
CAVEATS AND DRAFTING NOTES 37 注意事项与说明 30
THIS CONTRACT (“Contract“) is made in 签订。买方和卖方以下单独称为“一方”，合称为“双方”。
PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 前言
After friendly consultations conducted in accordance with the principles of equality and mutual benefit, the Parties have agreed to enter into a sales contract in accordance with Applicable Laws and the provisions of this Contract. 双方本着平等互利的原则，经友好协商，依照有关法律，同意按照本合同的条款，订立销售合同。
Now the Parties Hereby Agree as Follows: 双方现协议如下：
1. DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATION 1. 定义和解释
Unless the terms or context of this Contract otherwise provide, this Contract shall be interpreted in accordance with Schedule A, and each of the terms used herein shall have the meaning ascribed to it in Schedule A (Definitions and Interpretation) or Schedule B (Special Terms) as the case may be. 除本合同条款或上下文另有所指，本合同应根据附录一进行解释，本合同中所有相关用语的定义见附录一（定义和解释）和附录二（特别条款），以适用者为准。
2. SCOPE OF CONTRACT 2. 合同范围
2.1 Supply of Equipment and Services 2.1 供应合同设备及提供合同服务
Seller shall supply to Buyer the Equipment and Services (as more specifically set out in Annex 1 hereto) 向买方供应合同设备和提供合同服务（详见本合同附件一）。买方须按照本合同的条款，向卖方支付附录二（特别条款）所列的合同总价，同时履行本合同中规定的其它义务。
2.2 Project Supervisors 2.2 项目负责人
Seller and Buyer shall each nominate a representative as its project supervisor for the Project (each, a “Project Supervisor” and jointly, the “Project Supervisors”). Each Project Supervisor shall be authorized to deal with all technical matters in connection with the Equipment and the Services during the period from the Effective Date up to the expiration of the applicable Warranty Periods. Detailed arrangements for both regularly scheduled and emergency communications between the Project Supervisors shall be made through friendly consultation by Seller and Buyer. The Project Supervisors shall fully cooperate to resolve all technical issues which may arise in respect of the Equipment and the Services. If there is any dispute between the Project Supervisors, they shall analyze the problem, clarify the responsibilities and, to the fullest extent possible, settle it at the Installation Sites through friendly consultation. During the period of Installation and Commissioning, the progress of work, the main work done every week, all problems arising and the suggested solution(s) shall be reported weekly by the Project Supervisors to Seller and Buyer. 卖方及买方应分别指派一位代表作为合同项目的项目负责人(“项目负责人”)，并授权各自的项目负责人于合同生效日期到相关保修期届满这一段时期内，处理合同设备及合同服务相关部份的所有技术事宜。卖方及买方应通过友好协商就项目负责人之间的定期联络以及在紧急情况下的联络作出具体安排。项目负责人应通力合作以解决合同设备和合同服务可能发生的所有技术问题。如果彼此之间发生争议，项目负责人应分析有关问题，分清责任，通过友好协商，尽最大可能在安装现场解决有关问题。在安装及调试期间，项目负责人每周应向卖方及买方报告工作进度、每周所完成的主要工作、所有出现的问题及建议的解决方案。
2.3 No Transfer of Equipment 2.3 禁止转让合同设备
Buyer acknowledges and agrees that the Equipment constitutes and embodies the Confidential Information and Intellectual Property of Seller. Without the prior written consent of Seller, Buyer may not directly or indirectly transfer the Equipment to any third party for consideration or without consideration. 买方确认并同意合同设备构成并载有卖方的保密资料及知识产权。未经卖方书面同意，买方不得直接或间接地、有偿或无偿地、将合同设备转让给第三方。
3. CONTRACT PRICE 3. 合同总价
3.1 Price 3.1 合同总价
The Contract Price is set out in Schedule B (Special Terms). 合同总价详见附录二(特别条款)。
3.2 Consideration for Price 3.2 合同总价包括的事项
This Contract Price covers: 合同总价包含：
(a) the Equipment (including Hardware and Software License) and Services, (a) 合同设备(包括设备硬件和软件使用权)和合同服务，
(b) if Seller is the Party Responsible for Shipment, the cost of shipment of the Hardware and Documentation to the Place of Delivery. (b) 如果卖方是负责运输方，运送设备硬件和相关文件到交货地点的费用。
3.3 Costs and Expenses 3.3 费用和开销
The Contract Price does not cover costs and expenses that are for Buyer’s account under this Contract, or any taxes (including but not limited to customs duty and value added tax) payable by Buyer in respect of this Contract. 合同总价不含根据本合同应由买方承担的费用和开销，或买方就本合同应支付的税款(包括但不限于关税及增值税)。
4. PAYMENT 4. 支付
Buyer shall pay Seller the Contract Price on the following terms: 买方应按以下条款向卖方支付合同总价。
4.1 Advance Payment 4.1 预付款
The Advance Payment shall be paid by Buyer to Seller by wire transfer to Seller’s Designated Bank Account within ten (10) days after Buyer has received the following documents provided by Seller: 合同设备预付款由买方在从卖方收到下述文件后十（10）日内，以电汇的方式将预付款汇至卖方指定的银行帐户：
(a) Pro forma invoice covering one hundred percent (100%) of the Contract Price in six copies; (a) 载明百分之百(100％)合同总价金额的形式发票，一式六（6）份；
(b) Commercial invoice covering the Advance Payment in six copies; and (b) 载明预付款金额的商业发票，一式六（6）份；
(c) Sight draft covering the Advance Payment in two copies. (c) 载明预付款金额的即期汇票，一式两（2）份。
4.2 Delivery Payment 4.2 交货付款
The Delivery Payment shall be paid by Buyer to Seller under an irrevocable letter of credit (“Letter of Credit”). 买方应向卖方开具一份不可撤销的信用证（“信用证”），金额为交货付款额。
Buyer shall fifteen (15) days prior to the scheduled Delivery Date for first Shipment, open the Letter of Credit in favor of Seller for the Delivery Payment with a bank and in form and content acceptable to both parties. The Letter of Credit shall be available against Seller’s draft(s) at sight drawn on the opening bank for the Relevant Percentage of the invoice price of each Shipment accompanied by the shipping documents as follows: 买方应于第一批合同设备装运日期前至少十五（15）天，开具一份信用证（信用证），收款人为卖方，金额为交货付款额，信用证的形式、内容、以及开证银行事先应经双方一致同意。每批合同设备交货后，卖方可凭以下单据通过即期汇票（一式两份）向开证行议付每一批合同设备发票金额的相关百分比：
(a) One original and two copies of ，标明“运费〖到付〗〖已付〗”，并注明唛头，一(1)份原件，两(2)份复印件；
(b) Commercial Invoice covering the Relevant Percentage in three (3) originals and three (3) copies, indicating the Contract number, L/C number and shipping mark; (b) 金额为相关百分比的商业发票，注明合同号、信用证号及唛头；三(3)份原件，三(3)份复印件，
(c) Packing list in three (3) originals and three (3) copies issued by Seller; (c) 卖方出具的装箱单，三(3)份原件，三(3)份复印件；
(d) One (1) original and one (1) copy of a Certificate of Quality issued by Seller; (d) 卖方出具的质量合格证书，一(1)份原件，一(1)份复印件；
(e) One (1) copy of fax/email to Buyer advising particulars of delivery immediately after delivery to the carrier at the Port of Delivery has been made; (e) 在装运港将货物交给承运人后以传真或电子邮件的方式通知买方有关该批货物装运细节的一份通知复印件；
(f) One (1) original and one (1) copy of certificate of origin; (f) 该批货物原产地证书，一(1)份原件，一(1)份复印件；
(g) Two (2) copies of export licenses issued by the relevant export authority or two (2) copies of the confirmation from Seller that no export license is required. (g) 有关部门颁发的出口许可证的复印件或卖方签发的表明该批货物无需出口许可证的声明，一式两(2)份。
(h) If Seller is the Party Responsible for Shipment, one (1) copy of insurance certificate specifying the risk type as all risk covering one hundred and ten percent (110%) of the invoice amount for such Shipment. (h) 如果卖方为负责运输方，一(1)份该批货物的保险证明，载明险别为一切险，投保金额为该批货物发票金额的百分之一百一十(110%)。
The Letter of Credit shall be valid until the twenty-first (21st) day after the date of last scheduled Shipment. 信用证应在预定的最后一批货物的交货日后的二十一(21)日内保持有效。
4.3 Payment on Acceptance 4.3 验收合格之后的付款
The Acceptance Payment for the Equipment shall be paid by Buyer by T/T within fifteen (15) days after Buyer has received the following documents from Seller: 合同项目的验收合格之后的付款，由买方在收到卖方提交的下述文件之后十五（15）日内以电汇的方式支付：
(a) Commercial invoice covering the Acceptance Payment in three (3) originals and three (3) copies; (a) 载明验收合格之后付款金额的商业发票，三(3)份原件和三(3)份复印件；
(b) One (1) original and one (1) copy of the Acceptance Certificate in respect of the Project. (b) 合同项目的验收合格证书，一(1)份原件和一(1)份复印件。
4.4 Shipment by Seller 4.4 卖方运输
Seller shall commence Shipment once Buyer has paid the Advance Payment and opened the Letter of Credit as prescribed in Articles 4.1 and 4.2. 买方按照第4.1 条及第4.2 条的规定支付预付款并开出信用证后，卖方应开始发运合同设备。
4.5 Bank Charges 4.5 银行费用
Each party shall be responsible for its own bank charges. 各方应负责各自的银行费用。
4.6 Title to Hardware 4.6 硬件所有权
Full title to all Hardware shall transfer from Seller to Buyer upon Buyer’s payment in full of the Contract Price. 设备硬件部分的全部所有权于卖方全额收到合同总价之时，转移给买方。
4.7 Late Payments 4.7 付款延期
If Buyer fails to make any payment within the time stipulated in this Article 4, then Buyer shall be liable to pay to Seller interest on such unpaid amounts from the due date through the date such delayed payment is made in full. The applicable rate of interest shall be the LIBOR rate for six-month U.S. dollar loans plus 2%. 如果买方未能在第4 条规定的时间内支付某一笔款项，应就欠款向卖方支付利息，利息从到期应付之日至所欠款项全额还清之日计算。适用的利率为六个月期LIBOR 美元贷款的利率加2%。
5. DELIVERY 5. 交货
5.1 Delivery Schedule 5.1 交货进度表
Seller shall deliver each Shipment to the applicable Place of Delivery on or before the applicable Delivery Date set forth in the Project Schedule. The number of Shipments shall not exceed the Maximum No. of Shipments set forth in Schedule B (Special Terms). If the Place of Delivery is different from the Installation Site, then Buyer shall be responsible for transportation and insurance of each shipment from the Place of Delivery to Installation Site. 卖方应在项目进度表中规定的有关交货日或之前交每一批货。分批交货的总批数不得超过附录二(特别条款)中规定的合同设备最多发货批数。如交货地点不是设备安装地，买方应承担将每批货物从交货地点运送至设备安装地的运输和保险费用。
5.2 Notification before Shipment 5.2 装运前通知
At least two (2) weeks before making each Shipment, Seller shall send Buyer written notice of all relevant shipping details, including description, quantity and approximate weight and size of the Equipment in each Shipment, and other information consistent with industry practice. 在装运每一批合同设备至少两 (2)周前，卖方应书面向买方通知该批合同设备装运的所有相关细节，包括设备说明、数量、大概重量及体积、以及其他按照行业惯例应该提交的资料。
5.3 Equipment Delivery 5.3 合同设备交付
All the Equipment shall be shipped in complete sets, except as otherwise agreed, i.e., any special tools for installation, materials and easily worn-out parts shall be dispatched along with the relevant Equipment. 除非另有协议，所有的合同设备均应整套装运，即，所有专用安装工具、辅料及易耗备件应与相关的合同设备一起装运。
5.4 Notification After Shipment 5.4 装运后通知
Seller shall notify Buyer by fax or email of all shipping details within two (2) working days after each Shipment has been dispatched. For each large item, if any, over two (2) metric tons, the gross weight, measurement (L x W x H), name and price of such item shall be separately indicated. 卖方应在每批合同设备装运后的两(2)个工作日内，以传真或电子邮件的方式通知买方有关该批设备装运的细节。对超过2 公吨重的大件货物(如果有的话)要分别载明每一件货物的毛重、尺寸(长×宽×高)、名称及价格。
5.5 Customs Clearance Documents 5.5 货物清关文件
Within a reasonable time after each Shipment has been dispatched, Seller shall mail the Customs Clearance Documents specified in Schedule B (Special Terms). 卖方应在每批合同设备装运后的合理时间内，向买方寄出附录二(特别条款)中列出的货物清关文件。
5.6 Insurance 5.6 保险
The Party Responsible for Shipment shall be responsible for obtaining insurance during shipment for the Equipment and Documentation in accordance with industry practice at its sole cost. If damage to the Equipment occurs during shipment, Seller and Buyer shall work together to submit an insurance claim. 负责安排运输的一方应依照行业惯例，自费为在运输途中的合同设备及相关文件购买保险。如果在运输过程中合同设备受损，卖方和买方应相互协作提出保险索陪。
5.7 Seller’s Late Delivery 5.7 买方交货迟延
If solely due to Seller’s fault, Seller fails to complete delivery of all Shipments to the Place of Delivery on or before the Delivery Date for the final Shipment set forth in the Project Schedule, then Seller shall be liable to pay to Buyer liquidated damages in respect of such delivery delay at the Late Delivery Penalty Rate until such delayed Equipment is delivered in accordance with the terms of this Contract or the end of the Maximum Late Delivery Period, whichever occurs earlier. The total liquidated damages for late delivery shall not exceed the Maximum Late Delivery Penalty. The payment of liquidated damages for late delivery of any Shipment shall not release Seller from its responsibility to complete delivery of such Shipment. 如果完全由于卖方的过错，卖方未能在项目进度表规定的最后一批设备的交货日当日或之前将所有合同设备交至交货地点，卖方有责任就交货延误的合同设备按交货延误违约金比率向买方支付交货延误违约金，直到卖方按照本合同的条款交付所延误的合同设备，或直到交货延误的最长期限届满(以两者中较短者为准)。交货延误违约金的总额不超过特别条款中规定的交货延误违约金最高限额。卖方因交货延误而支付交货延误违约金并不解除其交货义务。
5.8 Buyer’s Termination Right 5.8 买方终止权
If such delivery delay extends beyond the expiration of the Maximum Late Delivery Period, then Buyer shall have the right to terminate this Contract. If Buyer terminates this Contract in part or in whole, it shall return at Seller’s expense all cancelled Equipment received from Seller, and Seller shall thereafter refund to Buyer, within fifteen (15) days of the date of return of all such Equipment, all amounts paid by Buyer to Seller for the terminated Equipment. 如果交货延误时间超出了最多迟延交货天数，则买方有权终止本合同。如果买方部分或全部终止本合同，买方应将从卖方收到的合同终止部分所涉及的合同设备归还卖方，费用由卖方承担。随后卖方应在这些合同设备全部返还之日后的十五(15)日内，向买方退还其就合同终止部分所涉及的合同设备向卖方支付的全部货款。
5.9 Buyer’s Claims 5.9 买方索赔
All of Buyer’s claims in respect of late delivery of Equipment shall be handled solely and exclusively in accordance with the provisions of Articles 5.7 and 5.8 above. 所有买方就交货延误提出的索赔应完全按照上述第5.7 和5.8 条的规定处理，且排除其他救济措施。
6. PACKING AND SHIPPING MARKS 6. 包装和唛头
6.1 Equipment Packing 6.1 合同设备包装
All of the Equipment to be delivered by Seller shall be packed in a manner suitable to protect it against repeated handlings and numerous loadings and unloadings. Protective measures consistent with the characteristics and requirements of the various items of Equipment shall be taken to prevent the Equipment from damage by moisture, rain, shock and corrosion. 卖方对所交付的一切合同设备都应以适当方式包装，使之不因多次操作和装卸而受损。应根据合同设备不同部件的特点和要求采取保护措施，以免因潮湿、雨水、震动和腐蚀而造成损害。
6.2 Labelling of Accessories 6.2 附件标签
Each of the accessories in a package or bundle shall be labelled by Seller to indicate contract number, package number, name of the Equipment to which it is an accessory, name of accessories and their position numbers on assembly drawings. Spare parts and tools shall be marked with the words “Parts” or “Tools” besides the above particulars. 卖方应给包装箱或捆束中的每个附件加上标签，注明合同号、包装箱号、附件所属的主体合同设备的名称、附件的名称及其在安装图上的位置号码。除上述各项外，备件和工具上还应标明“备件”或“工具”字样。
6.3 Specific Markings 6.3 具体标记
Seller shall mark the following on the four adjacent sides of each package of the goods with indelible paint in conspicuous printed English words: 卖方应在货物的每个包装箱的相邻四面用不褪色的颜料以显著的印刷体英文标明下列各项：
(1) Contract Number (1) 合同号:
(2) Shipping Mark (2) 唛头:
(3) Consignee (3) 收货人:
(4) Place of Destination (4) 目的地:
(5) Name of Equipment (5) 合同设备名称:
(6) Case Number (6) 箱号:
(7) Gross Weight (Kg) (7) 毛重(公斤):
(8) Measurement (L x W x H in cm) (8) 尺寸(长×宽×高，以厘米为单位):
(9) Sites Code Number（if applicable） (9) 场地编号（如适用）:
Should any goods weigh two (2) or more than two (2) metric tons, the center of gravity and hoisting position shall be marked in English and with the appropriate markings on two sides of each case so as to facilitate loading and handling. In addition, in accordance with the characteristics and different requirements of the goods for loading

请问在下面这句话中High and low context应该怎么翻译

“条款”高背景“和”低语境“是用来形容粗略的文化差异与社会” （啤酒，乙脑） 。
“高指社会或群体的人有密切联系，超过一段很长的时间” （啤酒，乙脑） 。在文化高的背景下，人们高度重视，如何保持一个长期合作关系，与其他的。大多数家庭在我们的国家很可能是个案
具有高语境文化。
“低指的社会里，人们往往有很多的联系，但时间较短，或为一些具体的理由” （啤酒，乙脑） 。在社团与这个文化，大家都知道明确做什么，以处理目前的事项

multiculturalism，名词解释英语考试要用的，急！大概三十到四十个字！英文

多元文化
1. the doctrine that several different cultures (rather than one national culture) can co-exist peacefully and equitably in a single country
这个是英文词典标准解释
海明威
2.Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American writer and journalist. He was part of the 1920s expatriate community in Paris, and one of the veterans of World War I later known as “the Lost Generation.“ He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for The Old Man and the Sea, and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954.
Hemingway’s distinctive writing style is characterized by economy and understatement, and had a significant influence on the development of twentieth-century fiction writing. His protagonists are typically stoical men who exhibit an ideal described as “grace under pressure.“ Many of his works are now considered classics of American literature.
(美国)常春藤联盟
Ivy League is the name generally applied to eight universities (Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Yale) that over the years have had common interests in scholarship as well as in athletics. Stanley Woodward, New York Herald Tribune sports writer, coined the phrase in the early thirties.
In 1936 the undergraduate newspapers of these universities simultaneously ran an editorial advocating the formation of an ``Ivy League,’’ but the first move toward this end was not taken until 1945. In that year, the eight presidents entered into an agreement ``for the purpose of reaffirming their intention of continuing intercollegiate football in such a way as to maintain the values of the game, while keeping it in fitting proportion to the main purposes of academic life.’’ To achieve this objective two inter-university committees were appointed: one, made up primarily of the college deans, was to administer rules of eligibility; the other, composed of the athletic directors, was to establish policies on the length of the playing season and of preseason practice, operating budgets, and related matters. Two other inter-university committees on admission and financial aid were added later.
As President Dodds pointed out at the time, the general principles agreed on by the eight universities were essentially the same as those set forth in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents’ Agreement of 1916 (see Big Three).
The first step toward organizing full league competition came in 1952 with the announcement that, beginning with the fall of 1953, each college would play every other college in the group at least once every five years. This plan was superseded in 1954 when the presidents announced the adoption of a yearly round-robin schedule in football, starting in 1956, and approved the principle of similar schedules in ``as many sports as practicable.’’
Thereafter, the Ivy Group (as the league was called in the Presidents’ Agreement of 1954) established schedules in other sports, including some in existing leagues with non-Ivy members. As of 1977, the Ivy League colleges competed, round-robin, in football, soccer, basketball, and, with certain variations as noted, in baseball (also Army and Navy), fencing (except Brown and Dartmouth), ice hockey (except Columbia), squash (except Brown, Columbia, and Cornell), swimming (except Columbia, but also Army and Navy), tennis (also Army and Navy), and wrestling (except Brown and Dartmouth). Ivy championships in cross-country and track were determined at the annual Heptagonal Meets, in golf at an Ivy championship tournament, and in rowing at the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges Regatta.
The mid-seventies brought the inclusion of women’s teams in the Ivy League program with the institution of championship tournaments in basketball and ice hockey, and a move toward round-robin competition in field hockey, lacrosse, and other sports.
Other instances of increasing formalization of the Ivy League occurred in the seventies -- two of them involving Princetonians.
Since 1971, the Bushnell Cup has been awarded to the Ivy football player of the year, who is selected by vote of the eight coaches. This trophy, presented to the Ivy League by the Eastern Association of Intercollegiate Football Officials, was named in honor of Asa S. Bushnell ’21, the first commissioner of the Eastern College Athletic Conference, in appreciation of ``his great contribution to the advancement of college athletics.’’
In 1973, to provide greater coordination of the athletic interests of the eight universities, the post of executive director of the Council of Ivy League Presidents was created, and Ricardo A. Mestres ’31, financial vice-president and treasurer of the University, emeritus, was elected first incumbent. Mestres served in this post until 1976, when he was succeeded by James M. Litvack, visiting lecturer in economics and public affairs in the University.
希望有用

全国100所名校单元测试示范卷英语卷四

O
ne fine evening a man walked into a fast - food chicken place and bought a nine - piece bucket of chicken. He carried his chicken to the park for a romantic picnic under the moonlight with his lady.
Upon reaching into the bucket, however, he received a surprise . Instead of chicken he discovered nine thousand dollars! The young man brought the bucket back to the store and asked for his chicken exchange for the money. The manager, moved by the young man’s honesty, asked for his name and told him he wanted to call the newspaper and the local news station to do a morality (道德说教) that would inspire others.
“My date’s waiting, I just want my chicken,” the hungry man refused.
The manager was deeply struck by the young man’s humility (谦虚). He begged to be allowed to tell the story on the news. At this the honest man became angry with the manager and demanded his chicken. “You are an honest man in a (an) dishonest world! This is a perfect opportunity to show the world that there are honest people still willing to take a stand for what is right. Please, give me your name and also the woman’s name. Is that your wife?”
“That’s the problem,”said the young man. “My wife is at home. The woman in the car is my girlfriend. Now let me have my chicken so I can get out of here.”
It’s easy to look good to people who don’t know you. Many of us do a good deed here and there, and everyone thinks we’re something that we are not. But God sees your heart. It really doesn’t matter how much you do or what other people think of you. What matters is what’s on the inside.
Tell Me About Yourself is the most popular way for hiring managers to start most one-on-one job interviews; get this part right and the rest of the interview will just naturally fall into place.
　　This is a job interview! They do NOT want to hear irrelevant thing.
What they DO want to hear is a brief introduction to show how your career brought you to THIS point of being here with them. This means you need to show where and how you got started, the decisions and changes you made along the way and that the role you are about to be interviewed for is the right progression for your career. And do all this in about 3 minutes!
　　You have three minutes to hold their attention and tell them how you took up your first job and gained specific skills as your career progressed.Spend most of your three minutes on your recent job and how the skills you have matches the needs of the new job.
P
icasso was just 23 in 1904, when he is thought to have painted “Woman Ironing.“ Money was tight for him. He would often start a painting, give it up and begin another using the same canvas. For years art historians have known that hidden beneath the surface of “Woman Ironing,“ is another painting - a three-quarter-length portrait of a man with a moustache that was first seen in images taken with an infrared camera in 1989.
Firstly some experts thought the image might be a picture of Benet Soler, a Barcelona tailor.
To get a clearer picture of the figure beneath the “Woman Ironing“,John K. Delaney,a senior imaging scientist,was able to produce images far more detailed than any that had been seen before. For the first time the shape of the man’s sharp eyes and the upturn of his mustache were seen.His sleeves are not rolled up, but buttoned,which made some people think the image could be the beginning of a self-portrait. But that theory was dopped because Picasso didn’t have a mustache at the time.
So Carol Stringari,director of the Guggenheim Foundation,communicated with John Richardson, Picasso’s biographer,who, relying on his knowledge rather than technology, studied drawings, paintings and photographs of all the likely subjects. He concluded that it wasn’t Mateu Fernandez de Soto, a sculptor,
one of friends of artist’s.
But Ms. Stringari disagree. “We think it looks more like Ricard Canals, another artist.“
Mr Richardson argues that it is not Canals: the part in his hair, which is not on the same side as the part presented in drawings, photographs and paintings of Canals.
Ms. Stringari argued. “As much research as we do, we still come up with more questions, and those questions may never be answered.“

毕加索是23日在1904年,当时他被认为是“女人熨烫作画。“钱紧了他。他经常画开始,放弃它,并开始另一个使用相同的画布。多年来艺术历史学家知道,隐藏在表面之下的“女人熨烫,“是另一个画——一个穿三分的画像胡子的男人,第一次出现在1989年一个红外摄像机拍摄的图像。
首先一些专家认为图像可能是一个驱魔师的太阳系,巴塞罗那一个裁缝。
得到一个清晰的图下面“女人烫”,约翰·k·德莱尼,一位高级成像科学家,能够产生比任何更详细的图片,已经见过的。第一次男人的目光敏锐的形状和他的胡子的好转。不卷起袖子,但扣住,使一些人认为图像可能自画像的开始。但这一理论是dopped因为毕加索没有胡子。
所以卡罗尔Stringari古根海姆基金会主任,沟通与约翰·理查森,毕加索的传记作家,依靠自己的知识而不是技术,研究了素描、绘画和摄影的所有可能的主题。他得出结论,这不是Mateu•费尔南德斯•索托,雕塑家,
艺术家的朋友之一。
但Stringari女士不同意。“我们认为它看起来更像里卡德运河,另一个艺术家。”
理查森先生认为这不是运河:他的头发,这不是在同一侧的一部分图纸,照片和绘画的运河。
Stringari女士说。“尽可能多的研究,我们还提出了更多的问题,而这些问题可能永远不会被回答。”
We are told breakfast is the most important meal of the day, and dinner the most enjoyable. It is an occasion to socialize and spend time with the family. But what about lunch?In today’s fast-paced society, few people take time to enjoy this midday meal. Most of us just rush right through it.We grab a quick salad, or buy a sandwich and eat at our computers. Sometimes, if there is a deadline around the corner, we just skip lunch.
The development of technology hasn’t done our eating habits much good either. We are constantly distracted by e-mail, social media, and 24-hour news.Even when we do sit down for lunch, we are more connected to our hand-held electronic devices than ourselves.
Long working hours can cause all kinds of health problems, and many developed countries have put in place labor laws specifically regarding the lunch break. These regulations give employees the right to take a break during a long work shift, but it’s up to them whether they do so or not.
Frank Partnoy, a former Wall Street trader, says that employers should encourage workers to take time off for lunch. This is because long lunch breaks can benefit both individuals and society.Writing in The Guardian, Partnoy says that one obvious reason to take a lunch break is to slow down and gain some perspective. A break from work allows us to think strategically and outside the box. It also puts our daily tasks into a broader context.What we eat at lunch is also important. In Partnoy’s opinion, a fast food lunch is more harmful than not having lunch at all. And it’s not just about calories and unhealthy food. Recent studies show that fast food also has negative effects on how we think.Researchers at the University of Toronto in Canada have shown that merely being exposed to a fast food logo speeds up our reactions.
However, if we sit down at a proper restaurant and chat leisurely with colleagues, we are more likely to slow down, something that hardly can be achieved in a noisy and over-packed fast food chain.
A long lunch also benefits single people, as it frees up time for them to go on a date.The two factors that matter most at the early stages of a relationship are chemistry and compatibility. Love at first sight rarely happens in real life, but an hour-long lunch is enough to get a sense of those factors. Furthermore, embarrassment and awkwardness can be avoided when both parties know the lunch will end in an hour.
Despite these benefits, some employees might still be reluctant to take time off for lunch. Partnoy’s suggestion? Make skipping lunch difficult: Employers could ask workers to fill out a form stating their reasons for skipping the meal.
我们被教导说早餐是一天中最重要的一餐，而晚餐则是最愉快的一餐，它是一次进行社交联谊或与家人欢聚的良机。但是午餐呢？　在当今快节奏的社会中，很少有人花时间去享受午餐。我们中的大多数人只是凑合一下而已。我们随便吃几口速食沙拉，或是买个三明治，然后在电脑前解决掉。有时，一旦工作大限将至，我们甚至都顾不上吃午饭。
科技的发展也没有对我们的饮食习惯起到什么好作用。我们不断被电子邮件、社交媒体和24小时新闻所烦扰。甚至当坐下来吃午饭时，我们也无暇顾及自身，而是将更多的精力花在手持电子设备上了。
超长的工作时间能够引发各种健康问题，许多发达国家已经实施具体保障员工午休时间的劳动法规。尽管这些法规赋予员工们在长时间工作间隙休息的权利，但是否选择享用这样的权利还要看员工个人。
曾在华尔街担任操盘手的弗兰克?帕特诺伊说，老板们应该鼓励员工抽出时间享用午餐。因为较长的午休时间对于员工个人和整个社会来说可谓益处多多。帕特诺伊在《卫报》上写道，午休的一个显而易见的好处是人们可以慢下来，获得一些新想法。工作之余的休息可以让我们打破常规、打开战略性思维；同时还可以将我们的日常工作纳入到更为开放的环境中。午餐吃什么也同样重要。帕特诺伊认为，午餐吃快餐比什么都不吃更有害。这不仅仅是卡路里和垃圾食品的事。最新研究表明，快餐对我们的思考方式也存在不良影响。加拿大多伦多大学研究人员已经证明，仅仅看到快餐店标志，就足以加快我们的的反应。
而如果我们坐在一间真正的餐厅里，与同事们悠闲地聊天，我们更容易放松下来。这在喧闹拥挤的快餐连锁店里是无法做到的。
一份悠长的午餐对于单身男女也是大有裨益，因为他们可以有更充足时间去约会。恋爱初期最至关重要的两个因素便是相互吸引以及情投意合。尽管一见钟情在现实中很少见，但一小时的午餐时光足以感受到上述因素的存在与否。另外，如果约会双方知道这顿午餐只有一小时，便能避免尴尬和难堪了。
尽管益处多多，一些员工也许仍舍不得抽时间享用午餐。对此帕特诺伊给出哪些建议呢？让不吃午餐变得更费事：用人单位可以要求员工填表，说明自己不吃午餐的理由。

what’s the matter与what’s the matter with you的区别

在影视作品的对话中，What’s wrong with you?这样的话，经常用作攻击性比较强的语言，接下来大多会引发一番激烈的争吵、甚至拳脚相向。
如果把句中的with you 去掉、只问What’s wrong 或What’s the matter?，就变成了中性的正常提问，而不再含有攻击性。
在日常生活中，也经常会说道What’s the matter?这样的话，用来询问别人的健康或心情，表示关心关切。
为什么加上一个简单的you，就会把正常的询问、转化成了敌意的质问呢？ 
解决问题 VS 分配责任
在人际交往中，有时难免发生不幸、不好、不愉快的事情，包括误会冲突、也包括生病或受伤。
在这种情况下，首先要做的，当然是解决问题，也就是，消除误会或治疗伤病。
但与此同时，也难免涉及到责任过错的分配；例如，两个人之间产生的误会，到底是由谁说错了哪句话、做错了哪件事引起的？
You和Your所构成的暗示
如果用What’s the matter with you?或What’s your problem?来询问，句中所包含的You和Your，就会让人觉得：说话的人是在强调，责任过错都要由对方承担、自己没有任何过错，因此会产生Assigning Blame的印象。
在今天的日常英语中，在面地面地向对方表示关心或询问伤病时，通常不会包含with you，而只是说What’s the matter?
  在面对面的口头交流中，说话时的Context情境，以及个人的表情和态度，很多时候要比语言措辞更加重要。如果神情漠然或面带挑衅，即使用不包含with you的What’s the matter? 也仍然会让人感到不友好、甚至敌意。
说话的语调有时也很关键。例如，在说What’s the matter with you?时，如果不对with you重读强调、只是轻微带过，也不会让人觉得是在质问。 
另外还有一点需要注意，很多人接触英语口语，主要渠道之一就是影视作品。而影视作品属于虚构的戏剧，戏剧和日常生活不同，在对话台词中会特意强调人物之间的冲突。
在日常生活中使用的，更多是比较缓和的语言。即使用到What’s the matter with you?这样的话，可能也只是略微带有一些责怪的意味，并不一定是在有意找茬吵架。

谁能帮我翻译下这段论文急~~

要使人们准确理解法律内容，严格依法办事，做到有法必依，执法必严，违法必究，那么在“有法可依’这个环节上，就必须是法律条文的表述做到明确无误。“法律语言必须准确、确凿、严密，这是法律的社会职能决定的，也是法律语体区分于其他功能文本的根本特点。”
Make people understand the legal content accurately, act in accordance with the law strictly, make sure to abide by the laws, strict in enforcing the law, ensure that law breakers be prosecuted, then until “ there are laws to abide by ’ at the the link, must legal statement of clause accomplish clearly and errorlessly. “The legal language must be accurate, conclusive, tight, this is determined by a social function of a law, it is the basic characteristic that the legal type of
writing is different from other function texts too. “
对此henry weihofen 也曾指出：“法学家的文字表述必须比其他所有的人的文字表述更加准确。”但有的人心怀叵测试图在合同文字中钻空子以规避其违规责任，耿耿于怀的继承人则希望以一种能够推翻遗嘱人意图的方式来宣读遗嘱，刑事被告则企图歪曲法律条文以使罪行逃脱法网，所有人都为了自己的目的而试图曲解文义。例如：有的译者在涉外销售合同的翻译中把”enrnest money”即具有担保性质的“定金”译成“订金”，以致在外商违约时，订金被解释为预付款，是外商逃脱了双倍返还定金的责任，可见法律译文的准确是法律翻译的根本，而翻译失真则是法律翻译的大患。法律文体翻译哪怕是微小的失误，都可能在经济上、政治上造成极大损失
Have pointed out this henry weihofen too: “The jurist’s characters must state more accurate to state than all other persons’ characters. “But some people maleficent to attempt to seek loopholes of contract characters by evading his responsibility in violation of rules and regulations, the inheritor taking to heart it hopes to overthrow the intention way of legators by a to read out testaments, culprit attempt clause of juggling with the law so that crime escape net of justice, all people attempt context of twisting for one’s own purpose。For example: Some translator have, guarantee “ enrnest money “ “ deposit “ of property translate into “ the deposit “ promptly in concerning foreign affairs translation of sales contract, so that when the foreign businessman breaks a contract, the deposit is interpreted as the advance payment, is the double responsibility for returning the deposit that the foreign businessman escaped, it is obvious legal accuracy of translation law base of interpreter, it translates distorted to be law great trouble of translation. Translate even small fault in legal recreation and sports, all perhaps cause great losses economically, politically

高分找英文高手和中国历史双重牛人

孔子
Confucius
Confucius Chinese philosophy
Ancient philosophy
孔夫子
Full name 孔丘 Kong Qiu
Birth September 28, 551 BC
Qufu, China
Death 479 BC
Qufu, China
School/tradition Founder of Confucianism
Main interests Moral philosophy, Social philosophy, Ethics
Notable ideas Confucianism
Influenced by
Zhou Era Chinese Thought
Influenced
Many Eastern philosophers, Christian Wolff, Robert Cummings Neville
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
Confucius (Chinese: 孔夫子; pinyin: Kǒng Fūzǐ; Wade-Giles: K’ung-fu-tzu), lit. “Master Kong,“ (September 28, 551 BC – 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher, whose teachings and philosophy have deeply influenced Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Taiwanese and Vietnamese thought and life.
His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism (法家) or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Confucius’ thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism (儒家). It was introduced to Europe by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci, who was the first to Latinise the name as “Confucius.“
His teachings may be found in the Analects of Confucius (论语), a collection of “brief aphoristic fragments“, which was compiled many years after his death. Modern historians do not believe that any specific documents can be said to have been written by Confucius, such as the Classic of Rites (editor), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) (author).
Contents
1 Personal life and family
2 Teachings
3 Names
4 Philosophy
4.1 Ethics
4.2 Politics
5 Disciples and legacy
6 Memorial ceremony of Confucius
7 Influence in Asia and Europe
8 Home town
9 Descendants
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Personal life and family
According to tradition, Confucius was born in 551 BC, in the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical movement. Confucius was born in or near the city of Qufu, in the Chinese State of Lu (now part of Shandong Province). Early accounts say that he was born into a poor but noble family that had fallen on hard times.
The Records of the Grand Historian (史记), compiled some four centuries later, indicate that the marriage of Confucius’s parents did not conform to Li (礼) and therefore was a yehe (野合), or “illicit union“, and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of shì (士), a class whose status lay between that of the old nobility and the common people, that comprised men who sought social positions on the basis of talents and skills, rather than heredity.
As a child, Confucius was said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table. His mother died when Confucius was 23, and he entered three years of mourning.
Confucius is said to have risen to the position of Justice Minister (大司寇) in Lu at the age of 53.
According to tradition, after Confucius’s resignation, he began a long journey (or set of journeys) around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China, including the states of Wei (衞), Song (宋), Chen (陈) and Cai (蔡). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.
According to the Zuo Commentary to the Spring and Autumn Annals, when he was 68
Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples,
Teachings
In the Analects 论语, Confucius presents himself as a “transmitter who invented nothing“.
In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven “天命” that could unify the “world“ (i.e. China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people.
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. Because his moral teachings emphasise self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules, Confucius’s ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed more indirectly, through allusions, innuendo, and even tautology. This is why his teachings need to be examined and put into proper context in order to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:
厩焚。子退朝，曰：“伤人乎？”不问马。
When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, “Was anyone hurt?“ He did not ask about the horses.
Analects X.11, tr. A. Waley
The passage conveys the lesson that by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated that a sage values human beings over property; readers of this lesson are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius’s, and to pursue ethical self-improvement if it would not. Confucius, an exemplar of human excellence, serves as the ultimate model, rather than a deity or a universally true set of abstract principles. For these reasons, according to many Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius’s teaching may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.
Perhaps his most famous teaching was the Golden Rule stated in the negative form, often called the silver rule:
子贡问曰、有一言、而可以终身行之者乎。子曰、其恕乎、己所 不欲、勿施於人。
Adept Kung asked: “Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?“
The Master replied: “How about ’shu’ : never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself?“
Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton
Confucius’s teachings were later turned into a very elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers who organised his teachings into the Analects. In the centuries after his death, Mencius until the 1800s.
Names

Confucius (illustration from Myths & Legends of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner)Michele Ruggieri, and other Jesuits after him, while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated 孔夫子 as Confucius. This Latinised form has since been commonly used in Western countries.
In systematic Romanisations:
Kǒng Fūzǐ (or Kǒng fū zǐ) in pinyin.
K’ung fu-tzu in Wade-Giles (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).
Fūzǐ means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just “Master Kong“, or Confucius, even in modern days.
The character ’fu’ is optional; in modern Chinese he is more often called Kong Zi.
His actual name was 孔丘, Kǒng Qiū. Kǒng is a common family name in China.
(In Wade-Giles translation by D. C. Lau, this name appears as Kung Ch’iu.)
His courtesy name was 仲尼, Zhòng Ní.
In 9 BC (first year of the Yuanshi period of the Han Dynasty), he was given his first posthumous name: 褒成宣尼公, Lord Bāochéngxūan, which means “Laudably Declarable Lord Ni.“
His most popular posthumous names are
至圣先师, 至圣先师，Zhìshèngxiānshī, meaning “The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood“ (comes from 1530, the ninth year of the Jianing period of the Ming Dynasty);
至圣,至圣， Zhìshèng, “the Greatest Sage“;
先师,先师， Xiānshī, literally meaning “first teacher“. It has been suggested that ’先师’ can be used, however, to express something like, “the Teacher who assists the wise to their attainment“.
He is also commonly known as 万世师表，Wànshìshībiǎo, “the Model Teacher“ in Chinese.
Philosophy
Main article: Confucianism

A portrait of Confucius, by Tang Dynasty artist Wu Daozi (680-740).Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, arguments continue over whether it is a religion. Confucianism lacks an afterlife, its texts express complex and ambivalent views concerning deities, and it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of the soul.
Confucius’ principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong familial loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and, according to later interpreters, of husbands by their wives), and the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself“ (similar to the Golden Rule). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples.
Because no texts survive that are demonstrably authored by Confucius, and the ideas associated with him most closely were elaborated in writings that accrued over the period between his death and the foundation of the first Chinese empire in 221 BC, many scholars are very cautious about attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself.
Ethics
The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that lǐ originated from the heavens. Confucius’s view was more nuanced. His approach stressed the development of lǐ through the actions of sage leaders in human history, with less emphasis on its connection with heaven. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony. In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ, though still linked to traditional forms of action, came to point towards the balance between maintaining these norms so as to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. These concepts are about doing the proper thing at the proper time, and are connected to the belief that training in the lǐ that past sages have devised cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when lǐ must be adapted in light of situational contexts.
In early Confucianism, yì (义 ) and lǐ are closely linked terms. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one’s own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one based one’s life upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good, an outcome of yì. This is doing the right thing for the right reason. Yì is based upon reciprocity.
Just as action according to Lǐ should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to the core value of rén (仁). Rén is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one’s responsibilities toward others, most often translated as “benevolence“ or “humaneness“; translator Arthur Waley calls it “Goodness“ (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth include “authoritativeness“ and “selflessness.“ Confucius’s moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one’s spontaneous responses of rén so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of yì. To cultivate one’s attentiveness to rén one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: one must always treat others just as one would want others to treat oneself. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other.
In this regard, Confucius articulated an early version of the Golden Rule:
“What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognises as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others.“ (Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm)
Politics
Confucius’ political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through “rites“ (lǐ) and people’s natural morality, rather than by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: 1. “If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.“ (Translated by James Legge) {The Great Learning} This “sense of shame“ is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.
While he supported the idea of government by an all-powerful sage, ruling as an Emperor, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for according language with truth; thus honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. In discussing the relationship between a subject and his king (or a son and his father), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action. This was built upon a century after Confucius’s death by his latter day disciple Mencius, who argued that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the Mandate of Heaven and be overthrown. Therefore, tyrannicide is justified because a tyrant is more a thief than a king. Other Confucian texts, though celebrating absolute rule by ethical sages, recognise the failings of real rulers in maxims such as, “An oppressive government is more feared than a tiger.“
Some well known Confucian quotes:
“When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them.“
“What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others“
“With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my crooked arm for a pillow - is not joy to be found therein? Riches and honors acquired through unrighteousness are to me as the floating clouds“
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